Hereditary Haemochromatosis (HFE): Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment

By Sam
Hereditary Haemochromatosis (HFE): Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment Complete article to Iron Overload Disorder | Symptoms, Genetics, Testing, and Management Hereditary Haemochromatosis (HFE) is one of the most common genetic disorders affecting iron metabolism in the human body. Despite its prevalence, it remains widely underdiagnosed due to its slow progression and non-specific early symptoms. This condition leads to excessive absorption and accumulation of iron in vital organs such as the liver, heart, pancreas, joints, and skin. Over time, this excess iron can cause serious and potentially life-threatening complications. In this comprehensive article, we will explore what Hereditary Haemochromatosis is, how it develops, its genetic basis, symptoms, diagnostic methods, treatment options, lifestyle modifications, and long-term outlook. This article is designed to be informative, easy to understand, and valuable for patients, caregivers, medical students, and hea...
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What is Antibody and Antigen Reaction

By Sam
Antibody and Antigen Reaction Full Notes Pdf 




The antigen-antibody reaction is widely used in laboratory diagnostics, including immunohaematology. It is a reversible chemical reaction:

antigen + antibody ⇄ antigen - antibody complex

The forces joining the antigen-antibody complex are not strong covalent bonds but weaker bonds, appropriately named “weak interactions”1.

Types of weak interactions
According to quantum mechanics, all chemical bonds are based on electrostatic forces. A list of types of weak bonds is shown in table I, together with their strength (energy). Van der Waals forces are the weakest, but they are able to attract all kinds of molecules. Hydrogen or ion-dipole bonds require oppositely charged atoms. Hydrogen bonds are very important in aqueous solutions because water easily forms strong hydrogen bonds. Actually, “hydrophobic” bonds are simply the result of the exclusion from water molecules of other molecules that cannot participate in good hydrogen bonds. These molecules are called “non-polar” because their atoms do not form electric dipoles. At 37 °C, water molecules have an average kinetic energies higher than the weakest bonds. Moreover, the kinetic energy is not distributed uniformly. Therefore, even the strongest single weak interaction has an ephemeral life of a fraction of a second at physiological temperatures. For a stable binding, several weak bonds must be present contemporaneously and this requires steric complementarity between the molecules1.


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